95 jobs people do today across 13 settings, from solar farms to hospital labs, each with the end-effector setup an experienced integrator would expect and why. Built from public deployments and research; brand names are left out, and each job links to its sources.
An integrator would use one tool for 69 of the 95 jobs, a tool change for 16 and a two-tool head for 10. A second tool earns its place when the steps need different kinds of tool, or when a part must stay held while another tool works on it.
Research estimates from public sources, 2026-10-26. Not simulation results.
These jobs run in physics as worked examples: every tool the Studio can simulate tries every step, and the answer comes from the runs, not from the research estimate above. The rest are researched, not yet simulated.
Each job lists its steps, the setup we expect an integrator to pick and why, and the public sources it was built from. The badge says whether the Studio simulates it, or how hard it would be to model.
The expected setups are our research estimates. When a job runs in the Studio, physics decides the final answer.
Where
Setup
Simulation
Showing 95 of 95 jobs
Construction
Worked example
Floor tile setting: spread adhesive, place and level tiles
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Hose-fed notched-trowel or bead-extruder spreader
Vacuum pad array, 4 to 6 cups, with vibration tamper
1spreadadhesive bed on the slab
2placetile onto the bed at joint offset
3tamp and leveltile to height
Why we expect this
Spread one lane, swap once, then set it, so the swap stays cheap. The tamper sits inside the vacuum head because the tile must be vibrated into the bed.
Step notes
1. Production robots spread one lane at a time from an applicator on the mobile base.
2. Vision sets the joint, so no plastic spacers are needed.
3. Vibrate or press until lippage to neighbours is under about 1 mm.
Utility-scale solar module installation on trackers
Expected setup (research estimate)
Two-tool head
Vacuum frame, 4 to 6 cups, per-cup vacuum, blow-off
Nut runner on a short offset axis
1pickmodule from the crate
2placemodule onto the rail or torque-tube clamps
3torqueclamp bolts to spec
Why we expect this
The module must never sit unsecured in wind. A vacuum frame with an offset nut runner torques the shared clamp while the new module is still held, so one arm does what production systems do with two.
Step notes
1. Use a vacuum frame and blow off dust before sealing.
2. One deployed system reports placement within plus or minus 1 mm.
3. Shared mid-clamps are torqued as the next module goes on.
A floppy shingle cannot be re-registered after release, so it must stay held at its course line while nailed. Nailers on the same head make that possible.
Step notes
1. Paired suction cups give a fallback when one lands on an edge.
2. A camera on the previous course checks exposure and offset.
3. Drive 4 to 6 nails while the shingle is still held.
Retail · Factories, warehouses and retail
Rigid
Beverage cooler restocking from behind the shelf
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel jaw gripper
1graspbottle or can from stock case
2transferdrink along the cooler
3placedrink into the right lane
Why we expect this
One simple gripper covers every can and PET bottle in the cooler. One deployed robot uses a clip-like hand, and no second tool is needed.
Step notes
1. This covers cans of all sizes and PET bottles up to 2 L.
2. The arm is mounted on a rail.
3. The robot picks the lane by what is running short.
Construction
Approximation
Bricklaying: butter, lay and level bricks to the line
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel brick clamp, long flat padded jaws
Camera for brick offset in the jaws
1butterbrick with mortar
2laybrick to the line and level
3strikemortar joints
Why we expect this
A padded parallel clamp grips a rigid brick repeatably and leaves the bed and head faces free for mortar. Mortar comes from a fixed buttering station or a separate mortar robot, so the arm never changes tools.
Step notes
1. Bed and head joints are buttered at a station before placing.
2. A camera corrects for how the brick sits in the gripper, with joints of about 10 mm.
3. This step stays with the mason in every deployed system.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Rigid
CNC machine tending: door, vise or chuck, load and unload
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Dual parallel jaw gripper
1openmachine door
2swapfinished part for raw blank in vise or chuck
3closedoor and start cycle
Why we expect this
A dual gripper unloads and loads in one visit, and one supplier reports a cycle cut from 27 s to 15 s. The same jaws push or pull the door, and the machine works its own vise or chuck.
Step notes
1. The door is often automatic, but the arm can push or pull it.
2. Unload and then load in one visit.
3. This is done with an I/O signal.
Agriculture · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Harvest strawberries by cutting and gripping the stem
Expected setup (research estimate)
Two-tool head
Pinch jaw
Blade on the same actuator, cut-and-hold head
1isolateripe berry from its cluster
2grip and cutpeduncle
3placeberry into a punnet
Why we expect this
Gripping and cutting the stem in one closing stroke never squeezes the fruit and needs one actuator. In published lab tests, a 10 N stem grip held a 50 g berry under fast motion.
Agriculture · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Harvest tree fruit such as apples
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Soft bellows suction cup with vacuum
1attachto the apple
2detachapple by twist and pull
3conveyapple into the bin
Why we expect this
Most leading apple picking systems use suction, as it attaches despite position error and keeps fingers out of the canopy. Detachment is a wrist twist and pull.
Step notes
3. Convey or drop it into the bin.
Construction
Approximation
Interior wall and ceiling spray painting
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Airless spray gun with fan tip and standoff sensor
1masktrims, openings and floor
2spraywall and ceiling field in overlapping passes
3touch upedges and missed spots
Why we expect this
One nozzle on a lift-mounted arm covers walls and ceilings, and standoff and overlap control the result. A dual-nozzle bar only adds throughput. A roller wins only where overspray is unacceptable.
Step notes
1. The crew does this and the robot avoids masked zones.
2. Constant standoff and overlap set coverage and film uniformity.
3. A camera inspects, then touch-up is by hand or a second pass.
One adaptive gripper takes plates by the rim, bowls and glasses by the body, and the rack by its front edge. Learned policies already stack bowls with a parallel jaw, and hands are not needed for a tidy counter.
Step notes
1. Open the door and pull out the rack.
3. Push the rack in and close the door.
Warehouse · Factories, warehouses and retail
Rigid
Mixed-case depalletising
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Area vacuum gripper
1pickthe top-layer case from a mixed pallet
2transferthe case without it peeling off
3placethe case on the outbound conveyor
Why we expect this
Vacuum touches only the top face, so it works on any stack pattern and is the most common depalletising tool. Add side clamps only when tall, light cases peel off under acceleration.
Step notes
1. Sizes are unknown, with shrink wrap and shifted stacks.
2. Tall light cases peel off a vacuum tool under acceleration.
3. Business rules set the orientation.
Lab · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Move microplates between instruments
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Servo parallel gripper with plate paddles
1pickplate from liquid-handler deck
2removelid to a lid nest
3placeplate into reader or incubator nest
Why we expect this
Two force-controlled paddles grip the plate skirt and self-centre on the standard footprint, so one tool handles plates, lids and tip racks. Suction would need a second cup set to de-lid and cannot seal on foil-sealed or lidless plates.
Step notes
3. Seat it in the right orientation.
Facility · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Open doors and drawers
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel gripper with high-friction pads
1grasphandle, lever, knob or pull
2turnhandle to unlatch
3swingdoor or drawer
Why we expect this
One parallel gripper handles levers, knobs and drawer pulls, and one legged robot opens doors with a built-in single-axis gripper. A hook is cheaper and more forgiving if the job is only drawers and pull handles.
Step notes
2. Turn or press as the latch needs.
3. Swing the door or slide the drawer.
Retail · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Restock and face beverage coolers
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel gripper with concave bottle and can fingers
1pickbottle or can from back stock
2placeitem into the correct shelf lane
3pushlane forward
Why we expect this
Bottles and cans are rigid cylinders in fixed lanes. One gripper picks them and, when closed, pushes lanes forward to face them, and one deployed system uses a single hand for every beverage shape.
Step notes
3. This faces the lane.
Agriculture · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Transfer and pack eggs
Expected setup (research estimate)
Two-tool head
Suction cup array at egg pitch
Tray clamp
1lifta full row or tray of eggs
2seteggs into hatcher baskets or cartons
3restackempty trays
Why we expect this
A cup array lifts a whole tray of eggs without squeezing the shells. A tray clamp on the same head lets one robot also handle trays. Drop the clamp if trays move on conveyors.
Step notes
3. Destack and restack them.
Warehouse · Factories, warehouses and retail
Rigid
Two-piece shoebox picking
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Long-stroke parallel jaw gripper with tall flat pads
1graspthe shoebox base and lid together
2transferthe closed box without the lid sliding off
3placethe box into the sorter pocket
Why we expect this
Squeezing the box from two sides across the lid seam holds base and lid together, while suction on the top lifts only the lid. Two-piece boxes have long defeated standard vacuum and mechanical grippers.
Step notes
1. The lid is loose, so a top suction pick lifts only the lid.
2. Accelerations matter.
3. The start pose may be vertical or horizontal.
Hospitality · Labs, food and services
Worked example
Deliver amenities to a hotel room by lift and door
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Compliant fingertip button pusher with card holder
1presslift call and floor buttons
2ridelift to the right floor
3knockguest door
Why we expect this
Every contact is a press or a tap, and the guest takes the item from a drawer. A rigid finger with a compliant tip presses buttons, knocks and taps a card, so no gripper is needed, as in one deployed system.
A high-force, long-stroke parallel gripper with in-place detection is standard for prismatic cells, and it also places spacers and end plates. For densely packed round cells, use a magnetic top pick instead.
Step notes
1. Cells may be prismatic, cylindrical or pouch.
2. Alternate the polarity and add spacers.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Bottle capping with screw caps
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel gripper with cap-shaped jaws
1pickcap
2placecap on the bottle neck
3twistcap to torque
Why we expect this
A gripper that holds the cap, plus wrist rotation with a torque limit, is enough. The arm's own torque sensing sets the tightness.
Step notes
2. Find the thread start.
Construction
Approximation
Ceiling drilling and anchor installation
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Rotary hammer with dust shroud and depth stop
Anchor-setting tool with anchor feeder
1locatehole position from the plan
2drillhole to diameter and depth
3setanchor in the hole
Why we expect this
Drill every hole in reach, swap once, set every anchor, then move the base. Batching makes the swap almost free and covers anchor setting, where the remaining labour is.
Step notes
1. Use a total station or building model and avoid rebar.
2. Use dust extraction and depth sensing.
3. Hammer-set or torque-set, a step some deployed systems skip.
Household · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Clear a table
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel gripper
1pickdishes, cups and cutlery
2placeitems into the bussing bin
3throwtrash into the garbage bin
Why we expect this
Items are rigid and sit on a flat table. The best published table-bussing results use a parallel jaw.
Construction
Approximation
Concrete and clay block laying
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Servo clamp gripper, 300 to 400 mm flat jaws
Grip force control
1applyadhesive or mortar to the block bed
2placeblock to the course
3verifylevel and plumb
Why we expect this
The logic matches bricks but the units are heavier, so a strong clamp is the only tool. Adhesive goes on in-line before the gripper takes the block.
Step notes
1. An in-line applicator works before the gripper in one deployed system.
2. The heavy payload needs a slow, stiff trajectory.
3. A laser or camera checks the result.
Lab · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Decap and recap sample tubes
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Rotary parallel gripper with V-groove cap jaws
1holdtube upright in a rack or clamp
2unscrewcap
3screwcap back on
Why we expect this
Decapping is a twist with the tube held still, so a rack or clamp holds the tube and one gripper that grips and spins endlessly twists, lifts and replaces the cap. For full standard racks a dedicated multi-way decapper is better than any arm.
Step notes
2. Unscrew the cap and lift it.
3. Tighten to a set torque.
Construction
Rigid
Drywall hanging on walls and ceilings
Expected setup (research estimate)
Two-tool head
Board vacuum frame, 4 to 6 foam cups, dual circuit
Autofeed screw spindle on a short linear axis
1pickboard from the stack
2positionboard against studs or ceiling grid
3drivescrews along the framing members
Why we expect this
The board must stay flat against the framing while the first screws go in, and one arm cannot swap tools mid-hold. A spindle on the vacuum frame lets the arm hold and fasten in one pose.
Step notes
1. Use a vacuum frame and separate the top sheet.
2. It must stay held until the first screws are in.
3. Limit depth so heads dimple the paper without tearing it.
Warehouse · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
E-commerce packing: erect box, place items, close box
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Multi-cup suction gripper, individual cup control
1erectcarton from a flat blank
2placeorder items into the box
3closetop flaps
Why we expect this
One vacuum gripper does all three steps in a collaborative robot cell, folding flaps against fixed guides. At high volume a dedicated machine handles the boxes and the robot only places items.
Step notes
1. Open the tube, then fold and lock the bottom flaps against a fixture.
2. The same vacuum tool picks the items.
3. A standard tape sealer then seals the box.
Construction
Approximation
Exterior facade spray painting from a lift
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Multi-nozzle spray bar on a 2-axis gantry
1prepfacade surface
2sprayfacade in fixed-size boxes from the lift
3inspectcoat coverage
Why we expect this
Large flat facades suit a wide spray bar moving in a raster better than an articulated arm. The lift supplies the reach.
Step notes
1. Wash and clean the surface, which some robots also do.
2. One deployed system scans a box of about 50 sq ft, then sprays it, box by box.
3. Imaging checks quality and guides touch-up.
Retail · Factories, warehouses and retail
Rigid
Grocery shelf restocking and facing for boxes and cans
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel jaw gripper with slim fingers
1pickproduct from tightly packed shipping case
2placeproduct in a tight row on the shelf
3facerow to the shelf front
Why we expect this
Slim parallel fingers grasp boxes and cans, and the closed fingers or palm push rows forward. A research system using one reached over 98% object-level success, with spacing, not tool type, the gap to humans.
Step notes
1. Use side grasps on boxes and cans.
2. Humans leave gaps of about 3 mm.
3. This is a non-prehensile push.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Injection moulding part removal and degating
Expected setup (research estimate)
Two-tool head
Vacuum cups, multiple
Sprue gripper
1removepart and runner from the open mould
2degatepart from the runner
3placepart on the conveyor and runner in the granulator
Why we expect this
Cups for the part and pliers for the runner on one frame clear the mould in one stroke. Cutting at a fixed nipper station avoids adding knife mass inside the mould.
Step notes
1. Use vacuum on the part and pliers on the runner.
2. Use a fixed nipper station or a knife on the tool.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Rigid
Kitting parts into trays
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel jaw gripper
1picka part from a bin or shelf box
2orientthe part for its tray nest
3placethe part into the tray nest
Why we expect this
A two-finger gripper grasped more part types, though vacuum was faster where both worked in one published test. Use a tool change only if flat, light parts dominate, and sequence the kit to change tools once.
Step notes
1. Parts include bolts, brackets, caps and bearings.
2. Orientation decides whether the part can be grasped.
3. The kit sequence can be chosen to group parts by tool.
Kitchen · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Load dish racks in a commercial dish room
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Parallel gripper with quick-change fingers
Rim fingers for plates
Cup fingers
Magnet fingers for cutlery
1pickplate, bowl or cup from the bus tub or stack
2insertware upright into a peg rack
3pushloaded rack into the dish machine
Why we expect this
One deployed system settled on one gripper body with swappable fingers, since greasy plates, cups on their side and cutlery bunches each need different fingers. Fingers are cheap wear parts, and a fixed set would miss cutlery.
Kitchen · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Make coffee and drinks
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel gripper, concave cup fingers
1placecup under the dispenser
2operatethe machine
3hand offthe finished drink
Why we expect this
The liquids stay inside the machines, and the arm only moves cups, a portafilter or a pitcher and presses levers. One parallel gripper does all of this, and a hand only pays off for latte-art pours.
Step notes
2. This covers the portafilter, levers and buttons.
3. Pour it or pass it over.
Warehouse · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Mixed item piece picking for order fulfilment
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Suction cup
1pickone item from a cluttered mixed tote
2scanthe item barcode
3placethe item into the order tote or cubby
Why we expect this
Suction is the usual default for single items, and one deployed system reported 97% first-pick success in fashion with one high-flow cup. Add fingers to the cup only for many books, granular bags or heavy items.
Step notes
1. Boxes and blister packs are rigid, but polybags wrinkle and break suction seals.
2. A fixed scanner or scan tunnel usually reads it, and the robot only presents or drops the item.
3. No precise orientation is needed.
Construction
Rigid
Offsite timber wall framing: place studs and nail plates
Expected setup (research estimate)
Two-tool head
Long-stroke parallel gripper for lumber
Pneumatic framing nailer beside the jaws
1placestud between the plates at spacing
2nailplates to stud ends
3sheathesheathing panels
Why we expect this
The stud must stay square to the plate while it is nailed, and a nailer beside the gripper lets one arm place and fasten in one pose. Production lines often split this between a placing robot and a nailing bridge.
Step notes
1. The stud sits square to the plate.
2. Two nails go in each end while the stud is held square.
3. This is often done on a separate nailing bridge.
Retail · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Online grocery picking and bagging
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Suction cup
Parallel jaw gripper
1pickgrocery item from storage tote
2packitem densely into customer bag
3routeitems the tool cannot handle to a person
Why we expect this
One operator reports a small cup packs about 40% of its groceries and expects more only by adding a parallel gripper, soft attachments and a bottle tool. Tool change pays off because each extra tool unlocks a large volume class.
Step notes
1. Items vary widely in weight, shape and fragility.
2. Order and density matter.
3. Watermelons are one example.
Food packaging · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Pack produce into trays
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Soft bellows suction cup
1pickfruit from the conveyor
2orientfruit stem and colour up
3placefruit into a tray cup
Why we expect this
Apples, tomatoes and citrus have sealable skins, and a bellows cup tolerates position error while the wrist turns the fruit stem up. Switch to soft fingers for fuzzy or irregular produce such as kiwi, peppers or bunches.
Step notes
3. Avoid bruising.
Warehouse · Factories, warehouses and retail
Rigid
Palletising cases and bags
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Vacuum area gripper
1pickcase from the infeed conveyor
2placecase at its pattern position
3placetier sheet between layers
Why we expect this
For sealed cases a vacuum tool is enough and also lifts tier sheets. Change tool by product: forks for bags and open trays, clamps for pails, and a combined vacuum and clamp head only for mixed-product cells.
Step notes
1. Items can be sealed corrugate, trays or bags.
2. Gaps and squareness matter for stability.
3. The sheet is thin and flat, so the same vacuum tool lifts it.
Warehouse · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Parcel singulation, induction and scanning
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Multi-cup suction gripper, individual cup control
1singulateone parcel from a bulk pile
2placeparcel on the induction conveyor
3divertnon-conveyable parcels to an exception path
Why we expect this
Deployed systems use multi-cup suction with control of each cup, so one tool holds a small mailer or a large box. Scanning belongs to a fixed tunnel, not the tool.
Step notes
1. Avoid double picks.
2. A six-sided tunnel downstream does the scanning.
Food packaging · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Pick and place baked goods
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Food-grade soft fingers
1pickitem from the belt
2placeitem into tray or clamshell
3stackitems into a slug for wrapping
Why we expect this
Buns and pastries are soft, crumbly and porous, so suction leaks and pulls crumbs, while soft fingers cradle them. For flat, sealed items such as cookies, use a vacuum cup instead. Pick one tool per product family.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Press brake tending
Expected setup (research estimate)
Two-tool head
Vacuum gripper, multiple cups
Parallel jaw gripper with pivoting jaws
1loadblank from the stack and square it
2holdblank against the backgauge through the bend
3regrippart between bends and stack it
Why we expect this
Vacuum takes blanks off the stack and jaws hold the edge as the flange swings up. Production machines combine both in one gripper with a fixed regrip station. Add a tool changer only for very different part families.
Step notes
1. Check for double sheets and use a centring table.
2. Follow the flange as it rises.
3. Use a regrip station.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Rigid
Quality inspection with part flipping
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel jaw gripper
1presentface A of the part to the camera
2flippart by regripping
3sortpart to the OK or NG bin
Why we expect this
One gripper and a passive V-nest do the job: set the part down and regrip it from the other side. One deployed system used a suction cup for flat machined parts. No tool change is needed within one part family.
Step notes
2. Use a flip station, a hand-off or an in-hand move.
Construction
Approximation
Rebar tying at bar intersections
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Automatic rebar tying tool
Camera
1locaterebar intersection
2positiontying tool around the intersection
3tiewire wrap and twist
Why we expect this
The tie itself is a solved product, so the integrator buys a tying unit and only solves positioning. A gripper plus a wire twister would reinvent the tool.
Step notes
1. A camera finds the crossings without pre-mapping in one deployed system.
2. The jaws must enclose both bars.
3. One tool cycle takes about a second.
Hospital · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Restock hospital supplies
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Adaptive two-finger gripper, 85 mm stroke class
1pickitems from central-store bins into a tote
2carrytote to the unit
3placeitems into bins or drawers
Why we expect this
Supplies mix boxes, bottles and soft pouches. Adaptive fingers conform to all three and can also pull drawer handles, as in one deployed hospital robot.
Kitchen · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Run a fry station
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel gripper with handle-shaped jaws
1pick and fillempty basket at the dispenser
2lower and liftbasket in the fryer well
3dumpfood into the holding station
Why we expect this
Every step moves one rigid basket by its handle, and filling and dumping use dispensers and tilting. A handle-matched jaw is the cheapest secure grip near hot oil.
Step notes
1. Grip the basket by its handle.
2. Shake the basket after lifting.
3. Hang the basket back afterwards.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Screw driving in assembly
Expected setup (research estimate)
Two-tool head
Powered screwdriver
Parallel jaw gripper
1placethe cover or part onto the base in the fixture
2picka screw from the feeder
3drivethe screw to torque
Why we expect this
If people load the fixture, the screwdriver alone is enough. If the robot also places the part, each cycle alternates place and drive, so a compact gripper beside the driver beats a tool change per part.
Step notes
1. Skip this step if operators load the fixtures.
2. The tool holds the screw on the bit.
3. Repeat for each hole.
Lab · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Sort sample tubes into racks
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Narrow parallel gripper, long V-groove tube fingers
1picktube from input rack
2rotatetube at the barcode reader
3placetube in destination rack slot
Why we expect this
Tubes are rigid cylinders in a few sizes in dense racks. Narrow fingers reach between neighbours and wrist rotation spins the tube for the barcode read, while suction fails on decapped and push-cap tubes.
Agriculture · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Space potted plants in a greenhouse or nursery
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Wide-stroke two-jaw clamp gripper for pot rim or body
1pickpot from the cluster
2carrypot to the next pattern point
3set downpot at the planned spacing
Why we expect this
Pots are rigid cylinders in a known size range, so one clamp handles them, while suction fails on ribbed, dusty pots. For more throughput, repeat the same gripper on a multi-pot head.
Pharmacy · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Store and pick medicine packs
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel jaw with long flat fingers
Pusher plate
1scanincoming pack from the input belt
2storepack in a shelf slot
3pickprescription packs
Why we expect this
Packs are rigid boxes stored tightly, so thin flat fingers slide in beside a pack and a pusher ejects it. Suction works on an exposed face but handles only one face per pick.
Step notes
3. Drop them into the output chute.
Warehouse · Factories, warehouses and retail
Rigid
Trailer and container unloading of floor-loaded cartons
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Vacuum area gripper
1pickcarton from the wall face
2placecarton on the conveyor
3recoverfallen cartons on the floor
Why we expect this
Deployed production systems use suction alone. It grips the exposed front or top face, which is all a wall of cartons offers.
Step notes
1. Cartons near the ceiling must be gripped from the front.
3. Deployed systems handle this.
Facility · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Trip and rack out a switchgear circuit breaker
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Parallel gripper for trip button and tool placing
Motorised racking socket drive
1presstrip button
2insertracking socket onto the drive
3turndrive to disconnect
Why we expect this
Racking takes dozens of turns at real torque, which an arm wrist should not do. The gripper presses the trip and places a motorised socket that does the turning. A dedicated remote racking device is cheaper when no mobile robot is needed.
Step notes
1. This opens the breaker.
3. Turn until the breaker reaches the disconnected position.
Facility · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Turn valves during plant operator rounds
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel gripper with high-friction jaws
High-torque wrist
1grasplever or handwheel rim
2rotatevalve to target position
3verifyvalve position indicator
Why we expect this
Deployed plant robots turn valves with their standard gripper, provided the wrist delivers the breakaway torque. A dedicated handwheel driver only pays off for stiff multi-turn wheels.
Step notes
2. A quarter turn or several turns.
Construction
Approximation
Vinyl or laminate plank flooring, click-lock installation
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Vacuum bar, 2 to 3 cups, on a force-torque sensing wrist
1pickplank from the stack
2angle inplank into the previous row's groove
3tapend joint closed
Why we expect this
The arm's own motion closes the click joint by angling, pushing and dropping, then a sideways push finishes it. Force sensing matters more than special tooling.
Step notes
1. A vacuum bar runs along the plank.
2. Rotate about the long edge, push and lower so the short end folds down to lock.
3. The same tool gives a force-limited sideways push.
Construction
Approximation
Wall tile setting, butter, press and align tiles
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Vacuum pad array, 4 cups, with force-controlled pressing plate
1buttertile back with adhesive
2presstile onto the wall at joint offset
3checkplane and joint width
Why we expect this
Wall tiles are small and light, so one vacuum head pressing with controlled force is enough. Buttering at a fixed station keeps the arm on one tool and stops adhesive skinning on the wall.
Step notes
1. A comb pass at a fixed station keeps adhesive fresh for each tile.
2. Push and slide into the bed, then hold briefly so the tile does not slip.
3. A camera or laser checks against neighbours, with lippage under about 1 mm.
Construction
Rigid
Window and glass panel installation
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Vacuum pad frame, 4 to 8 pads, dual circuit
Low-vacuum alarm
5 to 6 axis manipulator
1pickglass unit from the stillage
2insertunit into the frame on setting blocks
3holdunit while beads or clips are fixed
Why we expect this
Glazing robots on the market all use a multi-pad, dual-circuit vacuum frame, so the tool is solved. The engineering lies in the manipulator and the tilt-and-insert motion.
Step notes
1. A vacuum frame picks from a tilted rack.
2. Tilt and translate with clearance on every side and a force-limited set-down.
3. Fixing stays with the glazier.
Warehouse · Factories, warehouses and retail
Related worked example
Returns processing: unpack, identify, sort
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Multi-cup suction gripper, individual cup control
1extractitem from the returned mailer
2scanitem barcode and condition
3sortitem to a destination bin
Why we expect this
Once the item is out of the mailer, the job is pick, scan and sort, using the same suction tool as piece picking and a fixed scan tunnel. Opening mailers needs two arms and is outside a single-tool cell.
Step notes
1. Opening the bag needs deformable handling, so leave it to a person or a dual-arm station.
2. Use a scan tunnel or present the item to a scanner.
Portions are bulk materials, so the effector is a scoop sized per ingredient and portion, and discrete items need a grasping attachment. A leading supplier changes utensils per run rather than using one universal hand.
Step notes
3. Pieces include patties and other items.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Cable connector insertion for wire harnesses
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel jaw gripper with form-fit fingers
Wrist force-torque sensor
1graspthe connector housing at its grip ribs
2insertthe connector into the socket with a force-guided search
3pull-testthe connector to confirm the latch
Why we expect this
Form-fit fingers on a standard parallel gripper hold the connector rigidly, and the wrist force-torque sensor handles the search and latch check. A tool change is needed only when the next step uses a different fastener, such as a clip gun.
Step notes
1. The hanging cable pulls on the connector.
2. Position noise of plus or minus 2 mm is typical.
Warehouse · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Case-to-tote decanting
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Multi-cup suction gripper
1opensupplier case
2transferinner packs into storage tote
3disposeempty case
Why we expect this
The cutting stays in a fixed opener, so the robot only lifts inner packs, which suction does best. A knife on the robot would add a tool change per case for no gain.
Step notes
1. This is usually done by a fixed case-opening machine.
Construction
Approximation
Caulking and sealant joints on facades and windows
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Motorised sealant dispenser with nozzle
Laser seam tracker
Trailing tooling shoe
1insertbacker rod into the joint
2gunsealant bead along the joint
3toolbead to profile
Why we expect this
One pass can bead and tool the joint if a shoe trails the nozzle. The tracker keeps the nozzle centred on a joint that wanders, and backer rod stays with the crew.
Step notes
1. The deformable foam rod stays a crew task.
2. Angle the nozzle into the joint at a constant speed matched to flow.
3. Use a trailing shoe or spatula.
Facility · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Clean commercial restrooms
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Parallel gripper for doors, seats and trash
Spray wand
1openstall door and seat or lid
2spraydisinfectant on fixtures
3cleanfloor and trash
Why we expect this
Lids and doors need a grip and disinfection is a spray. One deployed touchless spray system avoids brushes but does not scrub under the rim, so add a brush only if inspections demand it.
Step notes
2. Scrub as well if needed.
3. Vacuum or dry the floor and pick up trash.
Facility · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Clean high-rise windows
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Force-controlled brush or squeegee head
1wet and scruba pane
2drypane with squeegee or brush
3lowerplatform to the next band
Why we expect this
The job is constant-pressure wiping over flat glass, so a force-controlled brush head is the whole effector, as one deployed system shows. Grippers add nothing.
Construction
Approximation
Curtain wall bracket installation at the slab edge
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Rotary hammer drill with dust shroud
Nut runner or pulse torque driver with bracket fingers
1lay outbracket position at the slab edge
2drillanchor holes or scan the cast-in channel
3fixbracket with bolts torqued to spec
Why we expect this
Drilling and fastening happen in sequence, so drill every hole in reach, swap once, then fasten. One deployed system uses this approach with two arms per base, so one arm holds while the other drives.
Step notes
1. A total station gives the reference.
2. A hammer drill works near the edge.
3. Torque is logged for each bracket.
Construction
Approximation
Deck and roof fastener driving
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Autofeed screw spindle, strip or blow feed
Depth and torque sensing nose
Plate feeder, optional
1locatejoist, purlin or high rib below
2drivescrew with plate to depth or torque
3verifyseating and pattern
Why we expect this
Every fastener is identical, so an autofeed spindle on a carriage or gantry beats an arm picking screws one by one. No timber decking robot was found, but the same tool applies.
Step notes
1. Find it through the deck or insulation.
2. The fastener is the same every time.
3. Mark failures for rework.
Construction
Approximation
Drywall finishing, spray joint compound and sand
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Joint compound spray nozzle
Random-orbit sander with vacuum shroud on force-controlled wrist
1sprayjoint compound on seams or full skim
2sanddried compound to a flat finish
3primefinished wall
Why we expect this
Hours of drying separate spraying and sanding, so one swap per pass costs nothing. The key choice is force control for sanding, which one deployed system gets from the arm's built-in force control.
2. Orbital sanding at steady contact force with dust extraction, as compound scratches easily.
3. This step is optional and uses the same spray tool.
Facility · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Empty trash bins
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Wide-stroke clamp gripper for the bin body
1gripbin or cart
2lift and tipbin into the cart or truck hopper
3set backbin in place
Why we expect this
Tipping a rigid bin is a clamp, lift and rotate, as side-loader arms already do for standard carts. Indoors the same clamp works if bins are standardised. Replacing liners needs cloth handling and stays manual.
Construction
Approximation
Facade cladding and retrofit panel installation
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Vacuum pad frame for panel hanging
Drill driver for brackets and fixings
1fixsubstructure brackets to the wall
2hangpanel on the brackets
3fastenpanel to the substructure
Why we expect this
Brackets go on across a whole bay before any panel is hung, so the tool swap happens once per bay, not per panel. A crane or cable robot often takes the heavy lift, while the arm aligns and fastens.
Step notes
1. Drill and anchor across the whole bay first.
2. Lift the panel, then align it finely.
3. Use screws or clips.
Construction
Rigid
Floor layout marking from the building model
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Inkjet print head or marker
Mobile base
Prism for total station tracking
1localiserobot to site control
2traverseslab along the print path
3printlines, points and text
Why we expect this
Layout involves no manipulation. The effector is a print head and the robot is the mobile base, so an arm adds nothing.
Step notes
1. A total station tracks a prism on the robot.
2. The robot avoids obstacles within edge clearance limits.
3. Inkjet ink is chosen for surface and temperature.
Pharmacy · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Handle blister cards and unit doses
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Vacuum cup array, food and drug grade silicone cups
1pickblister card or single tablet
2stackcards or counted tablets
3placeitems into carton or unit-dose bag
Why we expect this
The flat foil side of a blister seals well, and thin cards slip between fingers. An array picks one card or a stack, and one deployed system uses a single small cup for single tablets.
Pharmacy · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Handle vials and syringes for IV compounding
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel gripper, stepped V-fingers for vials and syringes
1pickvial and set it in a holder or on a scale
2drawdose through the septum
3capsyringe or inject into the bag
Why we expect this
The arm only moves rigid containers between fixed stations, and the plunger, needle and scale are stations, not hand tools. One stepped finger set likely holds both vial necks and syringe barrels.
Step notes
2. This is a fluid step.
Lab · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Load pipette-tip racks onto a liquid handler
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Servo parallel gripper with plate paddles
1removeempty tip rack from deck
2placefull tip rack in its deck slot
3presstips onto pipette channels
Why we expect this
Tip racks share the standard plate footprint, so the same plate gripper moves them with no extra tool. The pipette head makes the tip press fit itself, so the gripper only handles racks.
Step notes
3. The pipette head does this, not the gripper.
Construction
Approximation
Overhead pipe and conduit installation on hangers
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Parallel gripper with V-jaws sized to the pipe range
Nut runner with rod chuck
1installthreaded hanger rods into anchors
2seatpipe or conduit into the hangers
3clamppipe in the hanger
Why we expect this
Rods go up first along a run, pipe is seated later and clamps come last, so one swap per run is enough. V-jaws centre round stock of different sizes, and one nut runner spins rods and tightens clamp nuts.
Step notes
1. Spin each rod in to depth.
2. 3 m sticks need support at two points.
3. Close the clamp and torque the nuts.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Rigid
PCB test fixture loading and sorting
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Long-stroke parallel gripper, edge fingers
1pickPCB or panel from the magazine or tray
2loadboard onto the fixture pins and close the lid
3sorttested board to the pass or fail magazine
Why we expect this
Wide-stroke edge fingers cover many board sizes without a change, which is why one manufacturer chose this gripper. The gripper can also push the lid closed.
Step notes
1. Grip by the edge and keep it ESD-safe.
Lab · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Plate and streak microbiology specimens on Petri dishes
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Parallel gripper for dish base and lid
Inoculation loop holder
1pickagar dish from stack and lift lid
2streakspecimen across the agar
3closedish, then label and stack it
Why we expect this
Dish and lid moves are ordinary rigid picks, while streaking is a light, controlled-contact path that needs a loop. One deployed system uses two robots, but a single arm can switch tools.
Step notes
2. Uses a loop.
Facility · Labs, food and services
Rigid
Press lift buttons and building controls
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Compliant button-pusher tip
1locatethe button or reader
2pressthe button or badge
3confirmlight, sound or door response
Why we expect this
Buttons need a precise press with limited force, not a grasp. Research prototypes show even a simple arm with a pusher tip does the job.
Step notes
2. Tap the badge on the reader.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Press-fit of bushings and bearings
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Dual parallel jaw gripper
1loadthe housing into the press nest
2loadthe bushing or bearing onto the press tooling
3unloadthe pressed assembly
Why we expect this
Integrators let a servo press make the fit and use the robot to load it, with a dual gripper carrying housing and bushing together. The robot presses only light fits itself, using a parallel jaw and force-guided search.
Step notes
2. Orientation matters.
3. The press monitors force and travel.
Construction
Approximation
Rebar placement on chairs at spacing
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Spreader beam with 2 to 4 V-jaw parallel grippers
1singulateone bar from the bundle
2carrybar onto chairs at spacing
3checkspacing and cover
Why we expect this
Long bars sag and swing, so gripping at several points keeps them straight. A lifting magnet suits black bar but likely loses hold on epoxy coated bar and cannot lift fibreglass bar, both used on bridge decks.
Step notes
1. This step is contact rich and the hardest to automate.
2. Support at several points stops long bars swinging.
3. Do this before tying.
Construction
Approximation
Shear stud and bracket welding on structural steel
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Stud welding gun with stud and ferrule feed
1loadstud and ferrule into the gun
2positiongun on the weld point
3fireweld and verify
Why we expect this
The gun picks and holds the stud and the feeders present studs and ferrules, so no gripper is needed. Bracket and column welds need a welding torch with a seam sensor instead.
Step notes
1. Studs and ferrules come from bowl feeders.
2. Hold it perpendicular to the flange.
3. The arc lasts about a second, then bend test a sample.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Rigid
Snap-fit clip insertion
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Feeder-fed clip inserter
1picka clip from the feeder
2alignthe clip over its tower or hole
3pushthe clip until it snaps
Why we expect this
At volume, a feeder-fed inserter avoids picking each clip. For low volume or several clip types, a parallel jaw with part-shaped fingers and a wrist force-torque sensor to detect the snap is more flexible.
Step notes
3. Force rises then drops at the snap.
Hospital · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Sort surgical instruments into sterilisation trays
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Electromagnetic gripper, two magnet pads
1pickinstrument from the cleaned pile
2identifyinstrument and tray position
3placeinstrument into a tray holder
Why we expect this
Instruments are thin, hinged, shiny and tangled. A magnet grips any ferromagnetic instrument without precise finger placement, as one research cell chose, though non-magnetic instruments would likely need fingers.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Sorting laser-cut parts from the skeleton
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Magnetic gripper
Vacuum gripper, multiple cups
1liftcut part out of the skeleton
2stackpart on its pallet by part number
3removeskeleton
Why we expect this
Magnets grip thick steel best, while aluminium and stainless need vacuum. Mixed-material shops change tools by job. A steel-only shop needs only the magnet.
Step notes
1. A small wiggle may be needed to free micro-joints.
3. A fork system often does this, not the robot.
Warehouse · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Stowing items into fabric pod cubbies
Expected setup (research estimate)
Two-tool head
Paddle gripper with belts
Hook
Wrist force-torque sensor
1pull backelastic retaining band
2push asideitems already in the cubby
3insertnew item into the gap
Why we expect this
This follows one deployed system: the stow tool combines plates, belts and a spatula, and a second arm holds the band. Use it only for front-access cubbies, as open-top totes need none of it.
Step notes
1. One deployed system uses a second arm with a hook.
2. A force-limited spatula blade does this.
3. Paddles with built-in belts slide it in.
Construction
Out of scope
Tile grouting: fill joints and wipe haze
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Rubber float or squeegee head, compliant mount
Damp sponge pad or roller with water feed
1spreadgrout across the joints
2packgrout into the joints
3wipehaze off the tile faces
Why we expect this
The grout set time separates floating from wiping, so working zone by zone needs one tool swap per zone. A combined head adds weight for no gain.
Step notes
1. Use a rubber float or squeegee in diagonal passes.
2. Fill to depth, as compression matters, not only surface finish.
3. Use a damp sponge after initial set.
Agriculture · Labs, food and services
Approximation
Transplant seedlings from plug trays
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Four-finger plug gripper
Pusher pin fixture
1loosenthe plug
2gripand lift the plug
3setplug in destination cell or pot
Why we expect this
Production transplanters grip the root plug after pins push it up. In one published test a two-finger gripper beat a needle gripper, 95% against 81.75%, as needles shatter loose plugs, so use fingers for loose-plug crops.
Step notes
1. Pusher pins push it up from below.
Agriculture · Labs, food and services
Out of scope
Attach milking cups to a cow
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Purpose-built teat cup carrier head
1locatethe teats
2attachfour teat cups
3detachthe cups
Why we expect this
Milking robots carry the cups on the arm and attach them directly. A generic gripper picking cups one by one would be slower and drop cups when a cow kicks.
Step notes
1. Clean each teat once located.
3. Spray the teats after removal.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Deburring machined or cast parts
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel jaw gripper with part-shaped jaws
1pickpart from a fixture or conveyor
2presentpart edges to a compliant spindle along a path
3placepart on the outfeed
Why we expect this
For parts the arm can lift, integrators fix the compliant spindle and move the part, so a smaller arm can work with a bigger spindle. Mount the spindle on the robot only for parts too big to carry.
Step notes
2. Keep the pressure constant.
Hospitality · Labs, food and services
Out of scope
Feed towels into a folding machine in a commercial laundry
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Pinch gripper, one per arm on two arms
Rail spreader clamps
1pickone towel from the pile by a seam
2findtwo corners
3spreadthe towel into the folder
Why we expect this
Narrow pinch jaws grip cloth at a seam or corner. Spreading needs two separate grip points, which one deployed cell gets from rail clamps, with no suction or hand.
Step notes
2. Grip both corners once found.
3. Spread it flat, then feed it in.
Household · Labs, food and services
Out of scope
Fold laundry
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Parallel pinch gripper, one per arm on two arms
1pickone garment from the pile
2spreadthe garment flat by its corners
3foldand stack the garment
Why we expect this
Folding needs two separate grip points and fast regrasping. Two arms with narrow pinch jaws match published systems, though this choice is an estimate.
Construction
Out of scope
Fresh concrete floor screeding and troweling
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Rotary trowel discs or blades on a mobile base
1screedfresh concrete to laser level
2floatsurface
3trowelsurface to finish
Why we expect this
This is a machine task, not an arm task. The effector is the trowel rotor and the mobile base carries it.
Step notes
1. Use a laser-referenced screed.
2. Float after the bleed water.
3. Make several power-trowel passes.
Construction
Approximation
Hardened concrete wall and ceiling grinding
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Diamond cup-wheel grinder with vacuum shroud
Compliant, force-controlled mount
1scansurface for high spots
2grindwall or ceiling surface
3checkflatness
Why we expect this
The job needs only one abrasive tool. The real engineering is in controlling contact force and capturing dust, so a compliant, force-controlled mount with a vacuum shroud fits.
Step notes
1. Use a laser scan or a straightedge.
2. A diamond cup wheel with a dust shroud works at steady contact force.
3. Rescan the surface.
Food packaging · Labs, food and services
Out of scope
Place raw protein into thermoformed trays
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Food-grade soft fingers, IP69K washdown rated
1picka piece from the belt
2laythe piece flat into a tray pocket
3repeatat line speed
Why we expect this
Raw meat is wet and limp, so suction leaks and rigid jaws tear it. Soft fingers rated for IP69K washdown meet the hygiene rules and are what deployed lines use.
Step notes
3. The work runs under washdown hygiene.
Warehouse · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Print-and-apply labelling of cases and pallets
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Label tamp pad with vacuum
1takeprinted label from the peel plate
2applylabel to the case or pallet face
3verifybarcode by reading it back
Why we expect this
The printer stays fixed and the robot carries only a light vacuum pad and scanner. Nothing else is needed.
Step notes
1. A vacuum pad holds the label.
2. The labelling standard asks for 400 to 800 mm above the pallet base, at least 50 mm from a vertical edge, ideally on two sides.
2placeboard in staggered bond, tight to neighbours
3fixinsulation anchors
Why we expect this
Boards go up course by course and anchors follow per area, so one tool swap per area is enough. Mineral wool is porous, so a needle gripper replaces the vacuum pad there.
Step notes
1. Apply dabs or a ribbon at a station.
2. Gaps cause thermal bridges.
3. Drill and set a dowel per area.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Sanding and polishing surfaces
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Orbital sander on an active compliant flange
1scanpart surface
2sandsurface at constant contact force along a coverage path
3changeabrasive disc
Why we expect this
The active flange holds contact force while the arm moves fast. One published test found it beat arm-based force control on quick orientation changes. Discs change at a station, so one tool is enough.
Step notes
1. Use a 3D camera.
3. Use a station, not a second tool.
Manufacturing · Factories, warehouses and retail
Approximation
Through-hole and odd-form component insertion
Expected setup (research estimate)
Tool change
Lead chuck
Parallel gripper
Suction cup
1pickcomponent by its body or leads
2insertleads through the board holes
3clinchleads under the board
Why we expect this
Odd-form parts differ too much for one gripper, so dedicated machines change heads by component class. Group insertions by tool to keep changes few.
Step notes
2. Tolerance is under a millimetre.
3. A machine does this under the board.
Retail · Factories, warehouses and retail
Out of scope
Garment handling: pick, hang, fold and bag
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Suction cup
1pickpolybagged or loose garment from a bin
2hang or foldgarment
3bagfolded garment
Why we expect this
In logistics most apparel is polybagged and picked by suction. Loose garments need a pinch gripper and cloth simulation, and hanging and folding are outside rigid-body scope.
Step notes
1. Use suction for polybags and a pinch grip for loose cloth.
2. The garment is deformable and outside rigid-body scope.
3. The garment is deformable.
Retail · Labs, food and services
Out of scope
Scan shelves for out-of-stocks and price errors
Expected setup (research estimate)
One tool
Camera mast, no end effector
1drivethe aisle
2imageevery shelf face
3flaggaps, misplaced items and price errors
Why we expect this
Shelf scanning is perception only, so there is no end effector to choose. Telling the user this is itself a useful answer.
How integrators choose: research summary
Our summary of the research, not a rule the simulator follows blindly: in the Studio, physics decides the final answer.
23 rules distilled from the same research: one tool by default, and a tool change or a two-tool head only when the steps need different kinds of tool or a part must stay held while another tool works.
R01
Single effector on a 6-axis arm by default
Always rank first the best single-effector setup on a 6-axis arm with no tool changer. Pick something more complex only if the baseline fails a step outright or the complex setup clearly beats its completion rate for each added effector, and always show the baseline beside it.
When a step opens hinged parts or doors, pours, flips, approaches from the side or below, or processes a non-horizontal surface, compare all effectors on the same 6-axis arm. On a 4-axis top-down wrist, mark the step kinematics-limited and do not rank effectors on it.
For opening lids, drawers or doors and for pressing, use the gripper already chosen. Move the tool along the hinge arc or push with closed fingers or a held hook or pusher. Soft arms and dexterous hands qualify only if every rigid option fails on a 6-axis arm.
When a rigid part fits the gripper stroke and its weight under acceleration stays within grip capacity, pick a two-finger parallel or adaptive gripper with form-fit fingertips. Choose pneumatic for a fixed part family with air supply, electric when stroke or force must change.
For screwing, nut running, dispensing, painting, sanding, deburring or cutting, require a flange-mounted tool of that kind. A gripper holding a hand tool is allowed only for light, low-torque work and is flagged as improvised.
When a part has a smooth, non-porous flat face large enough for the cups and vacuum force covers the load with a safety factor, pick suction cups. Use flat cups for side loads and stiffness, bellows cups for height variation, curves, cardboard and bags.
Add an automatic tool changer only when effectors differ in kind or utilities, or cannot share one head within payload, and change time still fits the cycle. Cost each change in seconds plus changer mass. Use manual changers only for batch changeover, never within a cycle.
When two effectors are used in every cycle and their combined mass with the part fits the payload without interference, pick a dual gripper or multi-function head. Switch by turning the wrist, for example unloading and loading a machine in one visit.
Soft arms and grippers qualify only for fragile, food or irregular parts of low mass, with no step needing precise placement or applied force such as inserting, screwing, pressing or opening. Otherwise rank them below every rigid option.
A dexterous hand qualifies only when a step needs in-hand reorientation or use of a human tool that a gripper, wrist and fixture cannot manage. Apply the largest complexity penalty and show its high price band.
When insertion clearance is smaller than the expected position error, use chamfers with passive remote-centre compliance centred near the tip, or a force-torque guarded search. Do not use a softer gripper in place of compliance.
Always check that tool, changer and part mass together stay within the arm payload with a dynamic margin. Also check the static moment of the heaviest tool on the changer.
For porous faces such as uncoated corrugated cardboard, textile, foam or felt, pick a foam area gripper with a high-flow generator, a needle gripper or fingers. Do not use a small cup on a low-flow integrated pump. For cardboard, use low vacuum and high flow.
For ferrous parts with a flat face at or above the tool's minimum thickness, pick a magnetic gripper. Derate perpendicular loads to about 28% and cylinders to about 41% of the flat rating, and note that any coating or air gap cuts force sharply.
When a screw or nut step exceeds the tool's torque, or reaches 25 N m on a cobot, use a torque reaction arm or a low-reaction tool so the wrist carries no reaction. Screwdriver-class tools stop at about 5 N m.
When every handling step needs the same gripper kind but part families differ in size or shape, pick multi-part fingertips, an adaptive gripper or automatic finger exchange before a full tool changer. This saves cycle time and cell space.
When a hook, push, press, scrape or wipe step occurs in a task served by a two-finger gripper, let the gripper pick a passive tool from a holder. No tool changer or extra powered effector is needed.
Pick pneumatic when the cell has air, the part family is fixed and the rate is high, for speed, force per gram and cost. Pick electric for high mix, no air or force-sensitive parts, for programmable stroke, speed and force with feedback.
Choose a stroke just above the largest grasp width, since pneumatic jaws travel the full stroke. Use angular jaws when they must swing clear of the part or machine, and three-jaw centric grippers for round parts.
When picking from a bin or clutter and items show flat faces, try suction first with fingers as the fallback. Use a hybrid head if both are needed every cycle, as in rule R08.
Score paint, dispense, sand, deburr, screw and insert steps by outcome: coverage and film thickness, path error and steady tool speed, even removal depth, seating at target torque without cross-thread, insert depth under a force limit. Label them approximation tier.
When the top setup wins with a soft, suction or process-model effector, show the best rigid-tier setup beside it. Recommend the approximation-tier setup only if it wins by more than the simplicity margin.
R23
Separate tools with clashing utilities
When two tools need incompatible utilities, such as weld power and gas with vacuum, or paint lines with an electric gripper, or together exceed payload, put them on a tool changer or on separate robots rather than one combined head.
Researched jobs and the setup an experienced integrator would expect for each. Research estimates, not simulation results, except where a task links to a worked example. Source links lead to the public pages each job was built from; they may name companies.